The word преступник has the following meaning выберите один правильный вариант для зтого вопроса
The person charged with the criminal offence is the defendant.
Лицо, обвиняемое в совершении уголовного преступления, является подсудимым.
2. A criminal case is brought by a prosecutor. Уголовное дело возбуждается (или ведется) прокурором.
3. A successful criminal prosecution will result in a conviction. Успешное уголовное преследование приведет к осуждению.
4. The word “guilty” is used primarily of criminals. The correspondent word in civil cases is “liable”, but this word is also used in criminal contexts. Слово «виновный» используется в основном в уголовных делах. Соответствующее слово в гражданских делах является «ответственным», но это слово также используется в уголовных контекстах.
5. The party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. Сторона, возбуждающая гражданский иск, является истцом.
6. The party is one of the persons or sides in a legal agreement or dispute. Сторона является одним из лиц или сторон в юридическом соглашении или споре.
7. The defendant in a civil case is sued by a plaintiff. Ответчику по гражданскому делу предъявляется иск истцом.
8. If the plaintiff is successful, the defendant will be found liable. Если истец успешен, ответчик будет признан ответственным.
9. Judgment is a decision of a judge or court . Приговор - это решение судьи или суда.
10. Procedure is the regular order of doing legal things. Процедура - это обычный порядок ведения законных дел.
11. A proceeding is a course of action. Процесс - это порядок действий.
12. Damages are money given as legal compensation. Ущерб - деньги, предоставленные в качестве законной компенсации.
13. To sue is tit take legal action against someone in a civil case. Подать в суд - это подать иск против кого-то в гражданском деле
Put the words below in one of the columns:
Civil case - liable, plaintiff, defendant, offence
Criminal case – to convict , Crime, life imprisonment, guilty, to prosecute, to punish, prosecution, conviction, prosecutor, punishment
Crime, life imprisonment, to convict, guilty, liable, plaintiff, defendant, to prosecute, to punish, prosecution, conviction, prosecutor, offence, punishment –
Read the text.
Crime is a violation of a law. Courts decide both criminal and civil cases. Most countries make a clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. Criminal and civil procedures are different.
In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is in most cases the state) is called the prosecution. The party bringing a civil case is called the plaintiff. In both kinds of cases the other party is called the defendant. A criminal case against a person called Ms. Brown would be described as ‘The People vs. (versus, or against) Brown” in the USA and “R. (Regina, that is, the Queen) vs. Brown” in England. A civil action between Ms. Brown and Mr. Smith would be “Brown vs. Smith” if it was started by Brown, and “Smith vs. Brown” if it was started by Mr. Smith.
Civil cases are usually disputes between or among private citizens, corporations, governments, government agencies, and other organizations. Most often, the party bringing the suit is asking for money damages. For example, a landlord may sue a tenant for failure to pay rent. People who have been injured may sue a person or a company responsible for the injury. It is up to the plaintiff to prove the case against the defendant. This is called the plaintiff’s burden of proof.
A criminal case is brought by the state or by a city or county against a person or persons accused of committing a crime. If the defendant has pleaded not guilty, you should presume the defendant’s innocence unless the defendant’s guilt is proved.
Jury verdict does not need to be unanimous in civil cases. Only ten jurors need to agree upon a verdict if there are 12 jurors. Five must agree if there are six jurors. In criminal cases the verdict must be unanimous, that is, all jurors must agree that the defendant is guilty in order to overcome the presumption of innocence.
Answer the questions:
- What is a civil case?
Civil cases are usually disputes between or among private citizens, corporations, governments, government agencies, and other organizations
- Who is a plaintiff?
The plaintiff must prove the case against the defendant. This is called the plaintiff’s burden of proof.
- Who is a defendant?
The defendant in a civil case is sued by a plaintiff
A suit is a requirement submitted by the claimant in a judicial proceeding and arising from the right belonging to the claimant by virtue of an agreement or on other grounds provided for in the law.
What is a burden of proof?
it is the duty of the parties to prove the circumstances to which they refer as the basis of their claims and objections
- What is a criminal case?
A criminal case is brought by the state or by a city or county against a person or persons accused of committing a crime.
- Who is the plaintiff in the criminal case? This is the victim who suffered physical, property, moral damage, as well as a legal entity in the event of a crime causing damage to his property and business reputation
- What is meant by the presumption of innocence? This is an assumption that a person is presumed innocent until his guilt is proved in the manner prescribed by law
Fill in the gaps with words and expressions from the text.
He was seriously ______ in a car accident.
_____ is a person who brings a suit in court.
Are you going to start a _____ against this company?
He claimed money ______ from his employer for the loss of his health at work.
Presumption of ______ is the main principle of justice.
A criminal case is usually brought by the ______.
The firm was responsible for the ______ and had to pay the compensation.
The ________ is a person against whom a case is brought.
Choose two of these expressions to complete each sentence below:
serious e. criminal offence
illegal f. commit a crime
crime g. against the law
violent h. break the law
Young men are more likely to ______ / ______ than any other group in society.
In most countries carrying the gun is _______ /________ .
In most countries drunk driving is a _____ / ______ .
Latest figures show that _____ / ______ crime, such as murder and rape, is on the increase.
Topic 2. The Trial
Vocabulary
in a particular order – в определенном порядке
opening statement – вступительная речь
lawyers for each side – адвокаты от каждой стороны
presentation of evidence – представление доказательств
testimony – свидетельские показания
testify – давать показания
disregard – не обращать внимания, не придавать значения
credibility of witness – надежность свидетелей
closing argument – заключительная речь
jury deliberation – совещание присяжных
foreman – старшина присяжных
bailiff – судебный пристав
present a verdict – зачитать вердикт
1 . Which of the actions or procedures above are carried out by each of the following people? Какие из перечисленных выше действий или процедур выполняются каждым из следующих людей?
- a judge present a verdict
- a juror - jury deliberation
- a criminal - closing argument
- a witness - testify
- a police officer - disregard
- the defendant - object
- a lawyer presentation of evidence , credibility of witness
- the clerk of the court - opening statement
2 . Match each word below with the definition.
the accused; court reporter; witness; policeman; jury; judge; defense lawyer; prosecutor; junior defense lawyer
a) sb. who has been charged with committing a crime
b) a professional who decides how a criminal should be punished
c) a professional who speaks for the accused and advices him/her in court
d) sb. who saw a crime happen
e) a professional who assists the lawyer of the accused
f) a group of people in court who decide whether sb is innocent or guilty
g) sb. whose job is to deter people from committing crimes and to arrest those who break the law
h) a professional who represents the state in court
i) sb. who notes down what is said in court
Read the text “Steps of the trial”.
Events in a trial usually happen in a particular order, though the order may be changed by the judge. The usual order of events is shown below.
Step 1: Selection of the Jury.
Step 2: Opening Statements. The lawyers for each side discuss their views of the case. They present a general picture of their proofs. What the lawyers say in the opening statements is not evidence.
Step 3: Presentation of evidence. All parties have the right to present evidence. The testimony of witnesses is evidence. Evidence may be in the form of physical exhibits, such as a gun or a photograph. Evidence may be not admitted by the judge. In this case it will be disregarded. During the trial the lawyers may make objections to evidence presented by the other side. The judge decides if the objection is valid or invalid. If the objection is not valid, the judge will overrule the objection.
Step 4: Closing Arguments. In the closing arguments the lawyers summarize the case from their point of view. They may discuss the presented evidence or comment on the credibility of witnesses. These arguments are not evidence.
Step 5: The instructions. The judge gives instructions to the jurors on the law that will be applied to the defendant. Instructions can be given at different times during the trial, but final instructions are usually given after the closing arguments.
Step 6: Jury deliberation. The jury retires to the jury room to conduct the deliberations on the verdict. The jury first elects a foreman who will control the course of the discussion. When the verdict has been reached, the foreman signs it and informs the bailiff.
All the verbs in the box relate to legal matters. Use them in the correct forms to complete the sentences.
acquit оправдате 15
charge обвинять 7
drop падать опускаться
plead умолять ссылаться
seize конфиск 10
serve служ, удовлетв
After six hours of questioning the accused man ______ .
The government awarded an amnesty to all political prisoners.
Her boss accuses her of stealing 250 dollars.
The secret police has imprisoned him for six months in a high security jail.
We engaged the best commercial lawyer we could find to represent us but we still lost the case.
The prisoner confessed guilty to all charges.
In August they charged him with murder.
The policeman stopped the car and arrested the driver.
The president released the opposition leader from prison.
The court seized him 2,500 dollars for obtaining money by false pretenses.
After consideration, the plaintiff dripped the case against his neighbor.
The customs arrested the shipment of books.
He was arrested six months in a local prison.
The crown court served the plaintiff 75,000 dollars in damages plus costs.
Two of the men were sent to prison, but the judge acquitted the third. 1
Match the verbs on the left with the nouns on the right to make ten pairs. Some verbs match with more than one noun:
cross examine a witness
Charge an interest
Negotiate a case
Make up sentences of your own, using the pairs you got.
7. Complete these sentences using the pairs from the exercise above. You may have to make changes to fit the grammar of the sentences. The first one has been made for you as an example.
You must know that you are breaking the law when you park on the pavement.
The merger will only go ahead if the two companies can ______ they are both happy with it.
After two hours of deliberation the jury _______ of not guilty.
We are going to _____ with a revolutionary new product next month.
A good accountant can save you money by finding ways to ________ .
We have _______ for the prosecution, which depends on an unreliable identification.
When she was ______ he contradicted his earlier testimony.
I am innocent, I did not ______ you accuse me of.
During the recent debate on this matter Mr. Allen failed to ______: he is a director of the company bidding for the contract.
Most solicitors do not ______ for the first consultation. 2
8. Put each of the words in the box in its correct place in the passage below:
If you want legal advice in Britain, you go to a ______.
At the end of the ______, the judge ordered twelve men and women of the ______ to retire and consider their _______, guilty or not guilty.
Men and women who look after prisoners in prison are called prison officers or _______ .
If a person dies in unusual circumstances, an _______ is held at a special court, and the ‘judge’ is called a _______ .
A policeman who investigates serious crimes is called a _______ . He wears ________ , not uniform.
In some countries murderers are executed but other countries have abolished the _______ . 3
Topic 3. The jury.
Vocabulary
legal proceedings – судопроизводство, рассмотрение дела в суде
provide a decision – выносить решение
trial jury – коллегия присяжных
evidence – доказательство, свидетельское показание
take an oath – принести присягу
pass the sentence – вынести приговор
challenge for cause – отзыв присяжного по причине
peremptory challenge – отзыв присяжного без указания причины
Fill in the table.
A) Match the verbs on the left with the nouns on the right.
determine a. guilty
listen b. at random
find c. a decision
provide d. in court
choose e. the evidence
pass g. punishment
resolve h. a legal issue
listen a decision
provide the evidence
resolve a legal issue
выслушать решение
найти случайно
предоставить доказательства
выбрать наказание
приводить факты
пройти в суд
решить юридический вопрос
B) Complete these sentences using the phrases from the previous exercise.
1. A jury is selected to choose punishment and to
They are ordinary people _____ _______ .
A jury ______ _______ in certain criminal cases.
If the person is _____ _____, the _____ _____ by the presiding judge.
By the 15 th century trial by jury ______ ______. 4
2. Они обычные люди _____ _______.
3. Суд присяжных ______ _______ по некоторым уголовным делам.
4. Если это _____ _____, _____ _____ председательствующим.
5. К 15-му веку судом присяжных
Read the text.
A jury is a body of laymen and women who provide a decision in legal proceedings. Their names are randomly selected from the Electoral Register (the people who can vote in elections). The jury traditionally consists of 12 people (Jurors) who are ordinary people. They listen to the evidence given in court in certain criminal cases and decide if the defendant is guilty or innocent. If the person is found guilty, the judge passes the sentence.
The first step in the selection of the trial jury is the selection of a ‘jury panel’. If a person is selected for a jury panel he/she is directed to report to the courtroom. The judge will tell the jurors about the case, introduce the lawyers and the people involved in the case. The jurors will take an oath, by which they promise to answer all the questions truthfully. The judge and the lawyers will ask the jurors a lot of questions to find out if they have a personal interest in the case. During this process of asking questions the lawyers may ask the judge to excuse a member of the jury from sitting on the jury for this particular case. This is called challenging a juror. There are two types of challenges: a challenge for cause (a lawyer has some specific reason to think that the juror cannot be impartial) and a peremptory challenge (the lawyer does not have to state a reason for the excuse of the juror).
Those jurors who have not been challenged become the jury for the case. The judge may allow selection of one or more alternative jurors, who will serve if one of the jurors is unable to do so because of illness or some other reason.
4 . Fill in the gaps.
1. The _ jury ___ must decide if the accused is innocent or _ guilty ____ .
2. The police were sure the man was a criminal , but it would be difficult to prove it in court.
3. Two months later the defendant was sent to court for court hearing
4. If the accused is convicted of kidnapping, the sentencemay be at least ten years in prison .
5. ___The lawyers defend people and present interests in court .
6 If you park your car illegally, you will have to pay a fine .
7. In Britain it is prohibited by the law to drive a motor vehicle without insurance.
8. Fortunately, it was only a minor offense and we were not taken to the police station.
9. The judge sentences people.
10. I have never defied the law and commited a crime.
11. Police are allowed to stop anyone in the street and arrested them.
Master your vocabulary in the topic “Crime and Criminals”
а ) Try to remember the names of crimes.
burglary — проникновение в жилище с целью совершить
преступление
kidnapping – похищение людей
arson - поджог ,
shoplifting — кража в магазинах
drug pushing — распространение наркотиков
manslaughter — неумышленное убийство
murder – предумышленное убийство
b) What do you call the criminals who commit these crimes?
Blackmailer
drug pusher
c) What are the crimes described in the following situations?
1. He threatened to send the love letters to her husband unless
she gave him money.
2. The telephone box had been smashed and there was graffiti all over the walls.
3. Department stores lose millions of pounds each years through the theft of goods off the shelves.
4. Thieves broke into the house while the family was away on holiday.
5. He watched with satisfaction as the fire he lit burnt down the factory. ‘That'll make them wish they'd never given me the sack,’ he thought.
6. It was a perfect copy. It was so good, in fact, that it could even fool an expert.
7. The bank believed her to be trustworthy. They had no reason to suspect that she had transferred thousands of pounds to false accounts.
8. 'If you want to see your child again, put £50,000 in an old suitcase and wait for further instructions'.
9. George gave the man £50 in return for a small-packet of heroin.
10. . It was a beautiful day. The sun was shining and people were sitting
outside the cafe enjoying the sunshine. Then the bomb went off.
11. 'If only I hadn't brought these watches through customs' she
thought as she sat crying in the police station.
1 Б.Л. Иванова, Т.В. Ружицкая. Иностранный язык (английский). Law , State and Business . C .-П. 2010. C . 146-147.
IV. Match the columns and give the translation:
1. a hijackera) buys and sells drugs illegally
2. a kidnapperb) takes control of a plane by force and makes the pilot
change the course
3. a robberc) takes away people by force and demands money for their return
4. a shop-lifterd) attacks and robs people, often in the streets
5. a drug dealer e) steals from shops while acting as ordinary customer
V. Open the brackets using the appropriate form of the verb in Subjunctive Mood:
1. Your brother (to become) much stronger if he took cold baths regularly.
will have become
will become
would become
If I (to know) the result now, I would phone her immediately.
know
knew
had known
If it (to snow), the children will play snowballs.
snows
had snowed
snowed
VI. Choose the right equivalent for the following words and word combinations:
1. главная задача
a) the principal objectiveb) the principal taskc) solution of a crime
2. обнаружить преступника
a) to trace a criminal
b) to interrogate a criminal
c) to reveal a criminal
3. исследует очень тщательно
a) examined very carefully
b) examines very carefully
c) interrogates very carefully
VII. Choose the right variant of the translation:
Если я узнаю результат, я тебе сразу же позвоню.
If I knew the result I will call you at once.
If I know the result I will call you at once.
If I knows the result I will call you at once.
2. Если бы мы больше занимались, мы бы написали тест лучше вчера.
a) If we had studied more we would have written the test better yesterday.
b) If we studied more we would have written
written the test better yesterday.
c) If we did studied more we would have written the test better yesterday.
Часть 2
1. He . the girl, threatening with a knife.( mugged burgled shoplifted murdered )
2. Kate was ashamed of . money from her father’s purse. (mugging stealing robbing blackmailing)
3. There was neither intent nor malice on her side, so it is . (murder homicide manslaughter assassination)
4. Do you have a fancy for . stories?( murder homicide manslaughter killing)
5. … is the most general word for a person, who advises people about laws.(Lawyer Barrister Solicitor)
6. A lawyer who mainly works in the office is called a (an) . (advocate barrister solicitor)
7. She was tortured by . ( fault guilt blame)
8. People said that the heavy losses were the manager’s . (fault guilt blame)
9. The jury acquitted him, because his . was not proved. (fault guilt blame)
10. She was . by a man who threatened to tell her employer about her past. (hijacked blackmailed robbed arrested)
11. The . had a knife so she gave him her bag. (smuggler mugger thief arsonist )
12. Department stores lose millions from . (pickpocketing blackmailing shoplifting smuggling)
13. He . his father’s signature on 20 000 pounds worth of cheques.( forged smuggled hijacked killed)
14. When you travel on public transport, always keep your bag carefully closed in case of . ( hijackers pickpockets robbers muggers)
15. Eventually they manage to reach a (an) . ( plea verdict sentence objection)
16. The judge gave him a suspended . (. punishment sentence verdict probation)
17. ..exists in some parts of the USA.( Probation Capital punishment Treason Forgery)
18. It was decided that Timothy was innocent and he was . (arrested accused indicted acquitted)
19. The judge agreed to . her on bail.( acquit release leave take)
20. The . found Jones guilty. (judges jury police inspector)
Не во всех терминах уверена на 100% (т. к. далека от юриспруденции), но думаю так.
IV. Match the columns and give the translation:
1. a hijacker b) takes control of a plane by force and makes the pilot
change the course
2. a kidnapper c) takes away people by force and demands money for their return
3. a robber d) attacks and robs people, often in the streets
4. a shop-lifter e) steals from shops while acting as ordinary customer
5. a drug dealer a) buys and sells drugs illegally
V. Open the brackets using the appropriate form of the verb in Subjunctive Mood:
1. Your brother (to become) much stronger if he took cold baths regularly.
would become
If I (to know) the result now, I would phone her immediately.
knew
If it (to snow), the children will play snowballs.
snows
VI. Choose the right equivalent for the following words and word combinations:
1. главная задача
a) the principal objective
2. обнаружить преступника
a) to trace a criminal
3. исследует очень тщательно
b) examines very carefully
VII. Choose the right variant of the translation:
Если я узнаю результат, я тебе сразу же позвоню.
If I know the result I will call you at once.
2. Если бы мы больше занимались, мы бы написали тест лучше вчера.
a) If we had studied more we would have written the test better yesterday.
Часть 2
1. He . the girl, threatening with a knife.( mugged)
2. Kate was ashamed of . money from her father’s purse. stealing
3. There was neither intent nor malice on her side, so it is . manslaughter
4. Do you have a fancy for . stories? murder
5. … is the most general word for a person, who advises people about laws. Lawyer
6. A lawyer who mainly works in the office is called a solicitor (тут очень сомневаюсь)
7. She was tortured by .. guilt
8. People said that the heavy losses were the manager’s . fault
9. The jury acquitted him, because his . was not proved. guilt
10. She was . by a man who threatened to tell her employer about her past. blackmailed
11. The . had a knife so she gave him her bag. mugger
12. Department stores lose millions from . shoplifting
13. He . his father’s signature on 20 000 pounds worth of cheques. forged
14. When you travel on public transport, always keep your bag carefully closed in case of . pickpockets
15. Eventually they manage to reach a (an) . plea / verdict (вроде бы оба подходят)
16. The judge gave him a suspended . sentence
17. ..exists in some parts of the USA. Probation (тоже не уверена)
18. It was decided that Timothy was innocent and he was . acquitted
19. The judge agreed to . her on bail. release
20. The . found Jones guilty. jury
THE CAUSES OF CRIME
(l)No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits. Although this idea has been discarded by modern criminologists, it persists among uninformed people and provides the rationale for the harsh punishments still meted out to criminals in many parts of the world.
(2)Since the 18th century, various scientific theories have been advanced to explain crime. One of the first efforts to explain crime on scientific, rather than theological, grounds was made at the end of the 18th century by the German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall, who tried to establish relationships between skull structure and criminal proclivities. This theory, popular during the 19th century, is now discredited and has been abandoned. A more sophisticated theory - a biological one - was developed late in the 19th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who asserted that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits. Lombroso's theory was disproved early in the 20th century by the British criminologist Charles Goring. Goring's comparative study of jailed criminals and law-abiding persons established that so-called criminal types, with innate dispositions to crime, do not exist. Recent scientific studies have tended to confirm Goring's findings. Some investigators still hold, however, that specific abnormalities of the brain and of the endocrine system contribute to a person's inclination toward criminal activity.
(3)Another approach to an explanation of crime was initiated by the French political philosopher Montesquieu, who attempted to relate criminal behavior to natural, or physical environment. His successors have gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against person, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climates, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in colder regions. Other studies seem to indicate that the incidence of crime declines in direct ratio to drops in barometric pressure, to increased humidity, and to higher temperature.
(4)Many prominent criminologists of the 19lh century, particularly those associated with the Socialist movement, attributed crime mainly to the influence of poverty. They pointed out that persons who are unable to provide adequately for themselves and their families through normal legal channels are frequently driven to theft, burglary, prostitution, and other offences. The incidence of crime especially tends to rise in times of widespread unemployment. Present-day criminologists take a broader and deeper view; they place the blame for most crimes on the whole range of environmental conditions associated with poverty. The living conditions of the poor, particularly of those in slims, are characterized by overcrowding, lack of privacy, inadequate play space and recreational facilities, and poor sanitation. Such conditions engender feelings of deprivation and hopelessness and are conducive to crime as a means of escape. The feeling is encouraged by the example set by those who have escaped to what appears to the better way of life made possible by crime.
Some theorists relate the incidence of crime to the general state of a culture. especially the impact of economic crises, wars, and revolutions and the general sense of insecurity and uprootedness to which these forces give rise. As a society becomes more unsettled and its people more restless and fearful of the future, the crime rate tends to rise. This is particularly true of juvenile crime, as the experience of the United States since World War II has made evident.
(5)The final major group of theories era psychological and psychiatric. Studies by such 20th century investigators as the American criminologist Bernard Glueck and the British psychiatrist
(6) Since the mid-20th century, the notion that crime can be explained by any single theory has
fallen into disfavour among investigators. Instead, experts incline to so-called multiple factor, or
multiple causation theories. They reason that crime springs from a multiplicity of conflicting and
converging influences — biological, psychological, cultural, economic and political. The multiple
causation explanations seem more credible than the earlier, simpler theories. An understanding of
the causes of crime is still elusive, however, because the interrelationship of causes is difficult to
determine.
(1)
Criminology is a social science dealing with the nature, extent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.
(2)
The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behavior and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives, criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields.
(3)
Criminology originated in the late 18th century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanize penal institutions. During the 19th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to the understanding of crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasized case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the "social defense" movement, stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and the rights of society.
(4)
Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. The typological method involves classifying offenses, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas.
(5)
Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions.
TASK 2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following:
1. криминология рассматривает природу и причины преступлений
2. изучение обстоятельств правонарушения по материалам дела
3. криминология опирается на открытия других наук
4. проблемы задержания преступников
5. проблемы предотвращения преступлений
6. применение на практике
7. исправительные учреждения
8. установить корни преступного поведения
9. установить причины преступности
10. выработать действующие принципы
11. смягчить наказание
12. подвергнуть сомнению
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